Behavior Theory - An Overview

Behavior Theory

• Behavior Therapy is the application of techniques intended to create behavioral changes that are based on the principles of the conditioning theories of learning.
• These are characterized by multiple theories and techniques.
• The foundation is in Pavlov's classical conditioning, Skinner's operant conditioning and Bandura's Social Learning theaory.
• Skinner: behavior can be empirically investigated only through the measurement of observable behavior
• Withholding reinforcement = extinction
• This paradigm also includes Cognitive Behavior approaches
• All behavior is learned and can be defined and changed
• Change occurs by rearranging "contingencies of reinforcement" - altering what happens before and after the behavior

Social Learning Theory: Comprised of 3 elements

1. Target Behaviors (the target of change)
2. Antecedent behaviors or events (events that precede the behavior)
3. Consequences (events that follow the behavior)

Behavior Therapy Paradigm A-B-C

A (antecedent) ->B (behavior) -> C (consequences)

• In treatment the client(s) must identify DESIRED behaviors not just the undesired

Key Terms

• Coercive Process - negative reinforcement, the termination of a behavior (threats) upon occurrence of the desired behavior (compliance)
• Information processing- acquisition, storage and utilization of information (includes perception, language and memory).
• Beliefs and Belief Systems- ideas attitudes and expectations about self, others and experience
• Self Statements- private monologues that influence behavior and feelings
• Problem solving and coping - conceptual and symbolic processes involved in arriving at effective responses to problematic situations.

Behavioral Social Work Practice: goal is to increase desireable behavior and decrease undesirable behavior so the client can improve daily functioning.

• Focus on the here and now
• Build on client strengths
• Etiology of behavior is not investigated
• Traditionally a diagnostic label was not pursued and thought of as stigmatizing but with current approaches, there is more integration of diagnostic classifications (likely due to requirements from insurance companies)
• Build a strong therapeutic relationship
• Involve the client as much as possible in each step of the assessment/intervention

Assessment steps:

1. Identify problematic behavior (perception of who does what)
2. Identify priorities, antecedents & consequences
3. Identify contingencies
4. Identify recurrent patterns
5. Secure a commitment
6. Begin to identify targets (desirable behaviors)
7. Discuss possible targets
8. Allow time for all family members to present concerns (if applicable)
9. When targets are established, set conditions for a baseline measure
10. Determine if assessment indicates a change, does one or more participants require more attention (i.e. should it be couples therapy rather than family therapy?)

Implementation

1. Identify target behaviors
2. Establish new antecedents
3. Establish new consequences
4. Formulate a written contract
5. Follow up call
6. Reference contract, any changes require a consensus from family/clients
7. Check tally (in families parents usually tally target behaviors) provide positive reinforcement
8. Discuss problems between sessions
9. Conflict resolution
10. Evaluate program design
11. When target behaviors reach desired frequency, move toward termination

Termination

1. Evaluate progress
2. Set conditions for maintenance
3. Review basic learning principles
4. Have family continue tally for 4 weeks
5. Set up appt at 4 weeks for termination and f/u

Summary

• Very helpful for anxiety, depression, phobias, addiction, sexual dysfunction, relationship issues.
• Often paired with systematic desensitization
• Most recommended treatment for Phobic Disorders
• Also indicated for social skills training, hyperactivity, developmental problems
• Interventions must consider cultural issues and differences
• Empirically validated
• Sometimes combined with pharmacotherapy
• Need to maintain a record of what approaches work most effectively with what problems

Adapted from Social Work Treatment by Francis J. Turner, 4th Ed.

Erik Erikson - Psychosocial Development

     Erik Erikson (what a cool name!) was a student of Dr. Freud.  Although he studied stages of psychosocial development, his theories are not quite as sexually charged as Freud's.  Erikson was particularly interested in identity-formation and many people believe that this is because of difficulties with identity during his youth.

     Unlike Freud, whose theories concentrate on childhood development, Erikson's focus on the entire human lifespan.  His theories involve ego identity, which is the conscious sense of self developed through social interactions.  Every day we experience new social interactions and gain more knowledge and information.  Therefore, the ego identity is constantly changing.  Ego identity is tied in to a person's sense of self, including beliefs, ideals and values that help shape behavior.  Identity is formed early in childhood, is particularly important during adolescence and is constantly changing throughout life.

      Erikson believed that competence motivates a person's behavior.  That means that if someone completes a stage well, they will gain a sense of mastery, known as ego strength or ego quality.  If however, the stage and its conflicts are not managed well, the person will feel a sense of inadequacy.

       I found this great chart here that outlines the stages very well.  There are links to each stage so that you can learn more about them.  That's all for now on Erikson!  Happy studying!

Stage Basic Conflict Important Events Outcome Infancy (birth to 18 months) Trust vs. Mistrust Feeding Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust. Early Childhood (2 to 3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Toilet Training Children need to develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of shame and doubt. Preschool (3 to 5 years) Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Children need to begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt. School Age (6 to 11 years) Industry vs. Inferiority School Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority. Adolescence (12 to 18 years) Identity vs. Role Confusion Social Relationships Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak sense of self. Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years) Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years) Generativity vs. Stagnation Work and Parenthood Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world. Maturity(65 to death) Ego Integrity vs. Despair Reflection on Life Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and despair.

Freud's Psychodynamic Development Theory

There's nothing like a little bit of Freud's sexually wrought Psychodynamic theory to start your morning!  In fact, many people refer to Freud's theory as the Psychosexual Development theory.
Throughout much of history, childhood development was ignored.  Children were viewed as miniature adults - beings to be seen and not heard.  In the early twentieth century, theorists began to take notice of the way in which children developed, but even then, the focus was mainly on abnormalities, as opposed to healthy growth and development.  But at least it was a start, right?  You might wonder why it is so crucial to understand the cognitive, emotional, physical, social, and educational growth and development of children.  What is the point of it all?  Well, if we understand that there is a broad range of what's normal, we can help any children who fall outside of that range to get the help that they may need, and we can help to keep the status quo of the children who are developing typically.
In 1915, Freud was one of the first researchers to recognize and write on typical child development. Although at this point in time his theories may seem outdated, sexual and focused on abnormalities, it's important to realize that at the time they were groundbreaking.

 Instead of reinventing the wheel, I will quote the information found here.

"Proposed by the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, the theory of psychosexual development describes how personality develops during childhood. While the theory is well-known in psychology, it is also one of the most controversial theories. Freud believed that personality develops through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior.

Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life.

If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. For example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.

The Oral Stage

Age Range: Birth to 1 Year

Erogenous Zone: Mouth

During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking. Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers (who are responsible for feeding the child), the infant also develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral stimulation.

The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the child must become less dependent upon caretakers. If fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking, or nail biting.

The Anal Stage

Age Range: 1 to 3 years

Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control

During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet training--the child has to learn to control his or her bodily needs. Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment and independence.

According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon the way in which parents approach toilet training. Parents who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help children feel capable and productive. Freud believed that positive experiences during this stage served as the basis for people to become competent, productive and creative adults.

However, not all parents provide the support and encouragement that children need during this stage. Some parents' instead punish, ridicule or shame a child for accidents. According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can result in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive personality could develop in which the individual has a messy, wasteful or destructive personality. If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early, Freud believed that an anal-retentive personalitydevelops in which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid and obsessive

The Phallic Stage

Age Range: 3 to 6 Years

Erogenous Zone: Genitals

During the phallic stage, the primary focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children also begin to discover the differences between males and females.

Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a rival for the mother’s affections.The Oedipus complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the child also fears that he will be punished by the father for these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.

The term Electra complex has been used to described a similar set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however, believed that girls instead experience penis envy.

Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent. For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated on this stage. Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory, calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead, Horney proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority because they cannot give birth to children.

The Latent Period

Age Range: 6 to Puberty

Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive

During the latent period, the libido interests are suppressed. The development of the ego andsuperego contribute to this period of calm. The stage begins around the time that children enter into school and become more concerned with peer relationships, hobbies and other interests.

The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual energy is still present, but it is directed into other areas such as intellectual pursuits and social interactions. This stage is important in the development of social and communication skills and self-confidence.

The Genital Stage

Age Range: Puberty to Death

Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual Interests

During the final stage of psychosexual development, the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last throughout the rest of a person's life.

Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual needs, interest in the welfare of others grows during this stage. If the other stages have been completed successfully, the individual should now be well-balanced, warm and caring. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between the various life areas.

Evaluating Freud’s Psychosexual Stage Theory

• The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little mention of female psychosexual development.


• His theories are difficult to test scientifically. Concepts such as the libido are impossible to measure, and therefore cannot be tested. The research that has been conducted tends to discredit Freud's theory.


• Future predictions are too vague. How can we know that a current behavior was caused specifically by a childhood experience? The length of time between the cause and the effect is too long to assume that there is a relationship between the two variables.


• Freud's theory is based upon case studies and not empirical research. Also, Freud based his theory on the recollections of his adult patients, not on actual observation and study of children.

Find more information about Freud's theory of personality:

The Conscious and Unconscious Mind

The Id, Ego, and Superego

Where to Start

The ASWB does not want you to fail the exam.  Their goal is to help assure that clinical social workers are competent in their knowledge.  The questions are not trick questions.  They are also not asking what "you" would do in a given situation.  They are asking what a textbook social worker should do.  There are four basic categories that are tested on this exam.  Each category has three or four subdivisions.    Each subdivision has between two and 42 areas based on KSAs.  What is a KSA?   A KSA is a "Knowledge, Skills and Abilities" statement.  These are areas in which a potential social worker needs to prove competence.  There are 177 of these that may appear on the exam.   The entire breakdown can be seen here.  Let's focus on the first one, which happens to be the one deemed most important, first.

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT, DIVERSITY AND BEHAVIOR IN THE ENVIRONMENT  Worth 31% of the exam, this category covers four subdivisions.  The first is Human Development in the Life Cycle.  Here you'll find theory and practice questions covering growth and development, personality, normal and atypical growth, different types of development, gerontology (my personal favorite), development, basic human needs, self-image as related to the life cycle, and anything related to this.  It will take several hours to cover this section.

Start Where the Test-taker is (at)

The most resounding lesson that I learned in grad school was that a social worker has to start where the client is (some professors added "at," but the grammar always seemed incorrect to me.)  Well, in this instance, I am my own client, so I will start at my own starting point right now.

What I feel:

• Confident that I have plenty of time to study.
• Assured that there is plenty of information out there in cyberspace.
• Excited about the prospect of building an excellent study tool for myself and others that will not cost anything other than time (of which I already said that I have plenty.)
• Anxious (in a good way) to build my skill-set and become an even better social worker.

What I know:

• The ASWB has an outline of all the material that might show up on the test, here.  
• There is a website that is full of flash cards with useful information here.  
• There are plenty of places that offer free exam questions, but I am not at that point just yet.
• There are other websites all over cyberspace with a wealth of information.  Clearly I am not reinventing the wheel.

I am at the very beginning, which is the best place to start.  So I begin with reviewing the ASWB's outline.  I notice that there are 177 items on that list.  I plan to knock those items out one at a time, systematically.  My plan is to post the equivalent of one hour's research for each entry here.  At the rate of one post a week, this blog should be the product of approximately fifty hours of research.  Not too shabby!

At Least It's a Start

I graduated with my MSW degree eight years ago. A year later I moved to this great state of Texas and took the LMSW exam, which I passed immediately.  Why have I never bothered to complete my two years of supervised clinical work?  Good question. Sometimes I think it was birthing and raising the six kids that got in the way, and sometimes I feel like it just might have been pure exhaustion.  The motivation has finally hit me, and next month I will start working on supervision. I'm not starting from scratch, as I already have four months under my belt, but in 20 months, in theory, I will be sitting for the LCSW exam. This scares me more than it should. Perhaps it is the reality that graduate school was a long time ago and the knowledge is not as fresh in my mind as it was when I took my initial exam that scares me. I am sure that I need to begin to study now. I need a strategy. There is a wealth of free knowledge on the Internet and it would be a crime for me to spend hundreds of dollars on study materials that I can get for free. You, my dear readers, get the benefit of my research. This will be based on the exam that will be taken in July 2015. What that means is that the information present will be based on the DSM V, as opposed to DSM IV-TR. Other than that, I am pretty confident that much of the material will be the same as it was on previous exams.  I plan to use the ASWB's outline of KSAs as a guideline, and will present at least one new topic per week, time permitting.   Ready or not, here it starts!